Jan 30, 2015 — USA (SUN) —
Introduction
Among scholars, the position of women in the Vedic culture is a cause for controversy and debate because of different, sometimes contradictory statements found in Vedic literature. As we know from the Mahābhārata, nāsau ṛṣir yasya matam na bhinnam—sages have their own opinions and often contradict other sages. Thus the only path to the truth is mahājano yena gataḥ sa panthaḥ—the path traversed by great authorities. That is why we would like to analyze through the teachings of Śrīla Prabhupāda and our previous ācāryas some of the different quotes and arguments presented in the paper "Some Evidence Regarding Education and Guruship for Vaishnavis," authored by Bhaktarupa Prabhu and Madhavananda Prabhu.
Since their paper substantially relies on the authority of lesser-known scriptures and commentators, we will examine their evidence within the broader context of the sources they quote. That is, we want to determine whether their translations of these scriptures and commentators can be legitimately inferred from the context of these same sources. Also, the wide use of exotic sources by the authors raises the question as to whether they are introducing opposing scriptures. "One should not introduce any opposing scripture" (Nectar of Devotion, Ch. 8, "Offenses to be avoided" ). We will therefore also weigh the authority of these statements within our Gauḍīya-Vaiṣṇava tradition. As fidelity to the conclusions of our sampradāya is essential for the propagation of the Krishna consciousness movement, this is a serious issue that must be deeply deliberated upon. That is why we decided to produce this analysis.
The authors of the paper have done otherwise wonderful service to the society of devotees. They are sincere and have given their lives for the service of Śrīla Prabhupāda. And although it is certain their intent is not malicious, it nonetheless seems that in their research they sometimes relied on someone's incomplete research, since some of the arguments are extrapolated, misleading, taken out of context or even fallacious. Falling to their feet, we heartily apologize before them for our impudence in trying to analyze their arguments. We sincerely hope and pray to them and to all the devotees that they will not take this friendly analysis as a personal attack and will not be offended by our presentation. The reason for this analysis was our apprehension that someone in the position of authority or leadership may base their decisions on such in many ways imbalanced evidence.
All the quotes from the paper will be enclosed in borders:
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The present paper is primarily an exploration into śāstra regarding the roles and responsibilities of
vaiṣṇavīs.
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However, their paper unfortunately does not give a balanced, broad view of the roles and responsibilities of vaiṣṇavīs, but what seems a partial view, not considering the vast multitude of other explicit and implicit examples and direct instructions from the śāstra.
Of course there have been several examples of women philosophers (the famous examples of them are Maitreyī and Gargī from the Bṛhad-araṇyaka-upaniṣad) or even dīkṣā-gurus (like Jāhnavā Ṭhākuraṇī or Hemalatā Ṭhākuraṇī) but still, their number is much less than the male representatives and we are left with no explanation as to why it is so.
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WOMEN IN THE VEDAS
The Vedic age can be described correctly only in the language of the Vedas and its supporting literature — the various brāhmaṇas, upaniṣads, etc. The following passages offer an insight into the position and rights of women in the Vedic age.
CREATED AS EQUAL HALVES
The Bṛhad-āraṇyaka-upaniṣad (1.4.3) contains the following passage —
sa dvitīyam aicchat. sa haitāvān āsa yathā strīpumāṁsau sampariṣvaktau. sa imam evātmānaṁ dvedhāpātayat. tataḥ patiś ca patnī cābhavatām. tasmād idam ardhabṛgalam iva sva iti ha smāha yājñavalkyaḥ.
He (the Supreme Lord) desired a partner. Assuming a form as great as the form of a man and woman combined, he divided this great form of himself and thus two equal parts fell, from which husbands and wives, respectively, were produced. Therefore, Yājñavalkya said that both of us are like two equal halves of a shell.
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First of all, it should be noted that there is no such word as "equal" in the original Sanskrit quote from Bṛhad-āraṇyaka-upaniṣad 1.4.3, which the paper takes liberty to use twice. It says only that "two parts fell" (dvedhāpātayat) and "two halves similar to a pea" (ardha-bṛgalam). If someone objects that ardha means precisely an equal half because a half cannot be unequal—that is not so, because we also see the word ardha in the famous logic of half-hen or "ardha-kukkuṭī-nyāya", where the upper part of the hen's body was
cut to save only the lower part which produced eggs. Obviously they were the halves (ardhas), but not equal.
Second, the text preceding this clearly states that the original person was male - ātmaivedam agra āsīt
puruṣavidhaḥ (1.4.1). [emphasis added]
Third, it is the woman who "fills the space" lacking in a man at the time of marriage and not vice versa - tasmād ayam ākāśaḥ striyā pūryata eva (continuation of the same passage from the Bṛhad-āraṇyaka- upaniṣad, 1.4.3).
If they were equals in all respect, then how do we explain this statement from the 6th chapter of Bṛhad-
āraṇyaka-upaniṣad:
śrīr ha vā eṣā strīṇāṃ yan malodvāsāḥ. tasmān malodvāsasaṃ yaśasvinīm abhikramyopamantrayeta (6.4.6) sā ced asmai na dadyāt kāmam enām avakriṇīyāt. sā ced asmai naiva dadyāt kāmam enāṃ yaṣṭyā vā pāṇinā vopahatyātikrāmet. indriyena te yaśasā yaśa ādada iti. ayaśā eva bhavati (6.4.7)
Translation (by P. Olivelle, slightly edited): "Surely, a woman who has changed her clothes at the end of her menstrual period is the most auspicious of women. When she has changed her clothes at the end of her menstrual period, therefore, one should approach that splendid woman and invite her to have sex [as is clear from the next verses the sex is for procreation]. Should she refuse to consent, he should bribe her.
If she still refuses, he should beat her with a stick or with his hand and overpower her, saying: "I take away the splendor from you with my virility and splendor." And she is sure to become bereft of splendor. If, on the other hand, she accedes to his wish, he should say: "I confer splendor on you with my virility and splendor." And then they are both sure to become full of splendor." [1] (According to the Mahābhārata and other scriptures, if the wife refuses when her husband approaches her with a desire to have a child, she commits a sin).
Even in our Gauḍīya-vaiṣṇava tradition it is an accepted fact that the wife (or more generally a woman) is not equal to her husband. This is directly described in one of the most elevated scriptures, Śrī Caitanya-caritāmṛta (Ādi-līlā, 10.137 and Antya-līlā, 2.104-106), where Mādhavī Devī, although being a great vaiṣṇavī, is still described as "ardha-jana" (half a person) while her brother, Śikhi Māhiti is described as a full, third person among the three and a half closest associates of Mahāprabhu. Śrīla Prabhupāda comments: "The three were Svarūpa Gosāñi, Śrī Rāmānanda Rāya and Śikhi Māhiti, and Śikhi Māhiti's sister, Mādhavīdevī, being a woman, was considered the half. Thus it is known that Śrī Caitanya Mahāprabhu had three and a half confidential devotees." (Caitanya-caritāmṛta, Ādi-līlā, 10.137, purport)
This is again corroborated by Śrīla Bhaktisiddhānta Sarasvatī Ṭhākura in his Anubhāṣya commentary to Caitanya-caritāmṛta, Ādi-līlā, 11.26, where he gives a list of descendants of Gaurīdāsa Paṇḍita. In that list Rāiyā Kṛṣṇadāsa is the 22nd and Annapūrṇā, being a woman, is similarly enumerated as 22½. Śrīla Prabhupāda also follows his Guru Mahārāja's numbering in his BBT edition of Śrī Caitanya-caritāmṛta.
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EQUAL RIGHTS TO EDUCATION AND CELIBACY
Direct evidence supporting the equal right to education is found in the Atharva-veda (11.5.18) as follows,
brahmacaryeṇa kanyā yuvānaṁ vindate patim
Through brahmacarya a girl attains a suitable husband.
So what is this brahmacarya? Sāyaṇa, the most prominent commentator on all the four Vedas, comments on the above Atharva-veda section:
brahmacaryeṇa brahma vedaḥ tad-adhyayanārtham-ācaryam
The word brahmacaryeṇa means "by all efforts employed to study the Vedas in order to know Brahman".
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The commentary here is mixed with the commentary to the previous verse (11.5.17) and incorrectly translated - there is no such part as "in order to know Brahman", the word "brahma" means "the Vedas", says Sāyaṇa [2] (just as in the SB1.1.2—tene brahma hṛdā ya ādi-kavaye... - "He imparted the Vedic knowledge unto the heart of Brahmā (ādi-kavi)").
The verse 11.5.17 with the commentary is as follows:
brahmacaryeṇa tapasā rājā rāṣṭram vi rakṣati
ācāryo brahmacaryeṇa brahmacāriṇam icchate
"Through brahmacarya the king particularly protects his kingdom. Through brahmacarya the teacher desires [to have] a brahmacari [-disciple]."
Sāyaṇa-bhāṣya: brahma vedaḥ, tad-adhyayanārtham ācaryam ācaraṇīyaṁ samid-ādhāna-bhaikṣacaryordhvaretaskatvādikaṁ brahmacāribhir anuṣṭhīyamānaṁ karma brahmacaryam.
Translation of the commentary: "Brahma means 'the Vedas', the activity to be performed by the brahmacaris in order to study them, such as igniting the firewood, begging alms, lifting up the semen etc. is called brahmacarya."
This part of the Atharva-veda is indeed very interesting, however if we are to accept that it establishes women's equal rights to education we will have to accept an exactly equal right of a king, an ox, a horse and the demigods who are similarly described in the same section:
anaḍvān brahmacaryeṇāśvo ghāsam jigīrṣati (11.5.18)
"Through brahmacarya the ox and the horse desire to eat grass"
brahmacaryeṇa tapasā devā mṛtyum apāghnata
indro ha brahmacaryeṇa devebhyaḥ svar ābharat (11.5.19)
"Through brahmacarya and austerity the demigods defeated death. Through brahmacarya Indra brought heaven for the demigods."
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The Śrīmad-bhāgavatam speaks of two ladies attaining to complete Vedic knowledge:
tebhyo dadhāra kanye dve vayunāṁ dhāriṇīṁ svadhā
ubhe te brahma-vādinyau jñāna-vijñāna-pārage
Svadhā, who was offered to the Pitās, begot two daughters named Vayunāand Dhāriṇī, both of whom were impersonalists and were expert in transcendental and Vedic knowledge. (4.1.64)
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Another example of a lady who attained to complete Vedic knowledge is Devahūti, who is also called brahmavādinī in the Śrīmad-bhāgavatam (3.33.12):
maitreya uvāca
iti pradarśya bhagavān satīṁ tām ātmano gatim
sva-mātrā brahmavādinyā kapilo'numato yayau
"Śrī Maitreya said: The Supreme Personality of Godhead Kapila, after instructing His beloved mother, took permission from her and left His home, His mission having been fulfilled."
However, in the purport to the next verse (3.33.13) Śrīla Prabhupāda clearly states that in spite of being a self-realized knower of the Absolute Truth (brahmavādinī) a woman still should be dependent, stay at home and practice bhakti-yoga:
sā cāpi tanayoktena yogādeśena yoga-yuk tasminn āśrama āpīḍe sarasvatyāḥ samāhitā
"As instructed by her son, Devahūti also began to practice bhakti-yoga in that very āśrama. She practiced samādhi in the house of Kardama Muni, which was so beautifully decorated with flowers that it was considered the flower crown of the River Sarasvatī."
Purport: "Devahūti did not leave her house, because it is never recommended for a woman to leave her home. She is dependent. The very example of Devahūti was that when she was not married, she was under the care of her father, Svāyambhuva Manu, and then Svāyambhuva Manu gave her to Kardama Muni in charity. She was under the care of her husband in her youth, and then her son, Kapila Muni, was born. As soon as her son grew up, her husband left home, and similarly the son, after discharging His duty towards His mother, also left. She could also have left home, but she did not. Rather, she remained at home and began to practice bhakti-yoga as it was instructed by her great son, Kapila Muni, and because of her practice of bhakti-yoga, the entire home became just like a flower crown on the River Sarasvatī." (SB3.33.13)
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SOME HYMNS RESERVED FOR THEM
There are many hymns in the Ṛg-veda that are reserved for recitation only by women. An example (Ṛg- veda 10.159.1-2) speaks about a woman's qualification to speak on transcendental topics:
ud asau sūryo agād ud ayaṁ māmako bhagaḥ
ahaṁ tad vidvalā patim abhy asākṣi viṣāsahiḥ
ahaṁ ketur ahaṁ mūrdhāhamugrā vivācanī
mamed anu kratuṁ patiḥ sehānāyā upācaret
Let my good fortune rise with the rising sun. May I attain my husband, defeat my enemies, and may I always be very tolerant. May I be an excellent knower of the Vedas, and a powerful speaker on the same. May my husband always be pleasing and behave tolerantly towards me.
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Actually, there is nothing transcendental in this hymn. It would be interesting to know on what authority the authors gave such a highly esoteric translation. Until we know what ācārya gave such an interpretation of the verse, we would rather stick to the traditional meaning. It is a hymn where the speaker (Śacī Paulomī, Indra's consort) prays for destruction of her rivals (sapatnī).
In the Sanskrit text itself, there are no such things there as "excellent knower of the Vedas" or "a powerful speaker on the same." Sāyaṇa[3] explains the word "ketuḥ", which the authors chose to translate very specifically as "the excellent knower of the Vedas", in more general words as "sarvasya jñātrī" - "knower of everything." "Aham mūrdhā" means "may I become prominent [as a head]" and "ugra vivācanī" means "may I evoke good speech - even if my husband is in an angry mood, I will always make him speak pleasant words."
For comparison, here is the English translation by Ralph T. H. Griffith on the basis of Sāyaṇa-bhāṣya [4]:
Sun hath mounted up, and this my happy fate hate mounted high.
I knowing this, as conqueror have won my husband for mine own.
I am the banner and the head, a mighty arbitress am I:
I am victorious, and my Lord shall be submissive to my will.
Even if we accept that women sometimes might have studied some parts of the Vedas, it does not establish this right for each and every part of the Vedas—since it would contradict the direct statement from the crest-jewel of all authorities, Śrīmad-bhāgavatam (1.4.25)— strī-śūdra-dvijabandhūnāṁ trayī na śruti-gocarā—"The less intelligent classes of men, namely women, śūdras and unqualified sons of the higher castes, are devoid of necessary qualifications to understand the purpose of the transcendental Vedas." (from Śrīla Prabhupāda's purport to SB1.4.25). The possible reconciliation of these two contradictions may be analogous to the well-known example of the Rathakāras, discussed in the Mīmāṁsā-sūtra (6.1.44-50) and used by Śrīla Baladeva Vidyābhūṣaṇa in his Siddhānta-darpaṇa (2.3) to show that even śūdras are
sometimes eligible to study the Vedas and recite the appropriate mantras, but only those "some" portions
of the Vedas that are directly prescribed for them to study. Or a similar logic given by Jaimini in his
Mīmāṁsā-sūtra (6.1.24) can be applied here too. We will discuss that later.
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ELIGIBLE TO RECEIVE THE GAYATRI AND THE SACRED THREAD
The Yama-smṛti specifies the right of women to study Vedas and receive the thread,
purā-kalpe tu nārīṇāṁ mauñjī-bandhanam-iṣyate adhyāpanaṁ ca vedānāṁ sāvitrī vacanaṁ tathā
Previously women were initiated with Brahmin threads and would teach the Vedas and acquire knowledge of the Gāyatrī.
Thus, there are quite a few places in the Vedas where women have been encouraged to teach and perform all kinds of sacrifices, including initiations.
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The verse the authors cite does not mention a Brahmin thread - "mauñjī" is a belt, made of sacred grass (muñja) which is tied (bandhanam) around the waist at the time of upanayana. (See, for example, Manu- saṁhitā, 2.42-43,169-171).
This quote from Yama-smṛti is incomplete, it goes on as follows[5]:
pitā pitṛvyo bhrātā vā nainām adhyāpayet paraḥ sva-gṛhe caiva kanyāyā bhaikṣa-caryā vidhīyate varjayed ajinaṁ cīraṁ jaṭādhāraṇam eva ca
Translation (by Prof. V.P. Kane):
"In former ages, tying of the girdle of muñja (i.e. upanayana) was desired in the case of maidens, they were taught the Vedas and made to recite the Savitrī (the sacred Gāyatrī verse). Either their father, uncle or brother taught them and not a stranger and begging was prescribed for a maiden in the house itself and she was not to wear deer-skin or bark garment and was not to have matted hair." (History of Dharma-sastra, in 5 Volumes, 1930-1962, Vol.2, p.295—from now on all the references to Prof. Kane or his History of Dharma-sastra are made to this edition).
Since the girl was restricted (her initiation was only to her close relatives, and she had to beg alms only from her own house), it is unfeasible that she taught the Vedas to others. Thus the phrase "[women] would teach the Vedas" seems extrapolated. Nevertheless, the authors give a reading of the text that defies its very context: "Thus, there are quite a few places in the Vedas where women have been encouraged to teach and perform all kinds of sacrifices, including initiations." However, it is clear that they have given an unwarranted extrapolation, since the text itself gives no evidence of actual "encouragement for performance of all kinds of sacrifices" what to speak of giving initiation.
This quote from the Yama-smṛti is usually accompanied by the quote from the Hārīta-smṛti that is also quoted in the paper under the title "TWO TYPES OF LADIES". We will discuss both of them here:
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The Hārita-smṛti, which is much older and broader in its outlook than the current edition of the Manu- smṛti, speaks about two types of women as follows,
dvividhāḥ striyaḥ. brahma-vādinyaḥ sadyo-vadhvaś ca. tatra brahma-vādinīnām upanayanam agnīndhanaṁ vedādhyayanaṁ sva-gṛhe-ca bhikṣācaryā iti. sadyo-vadhūnāṁ tūpasthite vivāhe kathañcid- upanayana-mātraṁ kṛtvā vivāhaḥ kāryaḥ (21.23)
There are two types of ladies — the brahmavādinī, who doesn't desire to marry, and the sadyo- vadhū, who wishes to marry. For the brahmavādinī there is provision for receiving the sacred thread, conducting the fire sacrifice, studying the Vedas, and begging alms at her own home.
The sadyovadhū at the time of marriage should only be invested with the sacred thread and then married."
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Again, the text does not mention "the sacred thread" but only the "upanayana", which for boys was certainly performed with the investiture of the sacred thread but, as we have seen above, there are several points that make it quite different from the boys' upanayana, namely:
- Only a close relative could perform the upanayana for girls and not a stranger;
- A girl could not go out of her house to beg alms (as boys did)
- She was not to wear deer-skin or bark garment and was not to have matted hair (as was the case with boys).
So, we can safely doubt the extrapolated assumption that they were "invested with the sacred thread." We should also say that the same Vīramitrodaya (where these quotes from the Yama- and Hārīta-smṛtis appear) concludes the discussion about "Initiation of women" by saying:
purā-kalpa iti vacanān nāsmin kalpa iti gamyate. ata eva manuḥ:
vaivāhiko vidhiḥ strīṇāṁ saṁskāro vaidikaḥ smṛtaḥ
patisevā gurau vāso gṛhārtho'gniparikriyā
"From the words purā-kalpe we can understand that it is not for this age. Therefore Manu has said: "The marriage ceremony is stated to be the Vedic sacrament for women (and to be equal to the initiation), serving the husband (equivalent to) the residence in (the house of the) teacher, and the household duties (the same) as the (daily) worship of the sacred fire.'" [this verse appear in the Manu-saṁhitā, 2.67].
These two quotes from Hārīta and Yama smṛtis are interesting in several ways. First of all, they are not found in any of the present editions or editions of these two smṛtis. They are known only from the medieval smṛti digests that include these quotations, such as Vīramitrodaya (which was used by the authors, it was written ca. 1610-1620 AD), Smṛti-candrikā (ca. 1150-1225 AD) and also Nirṇaya-sindhu (1612
AD). All of them agree that the words purā kalpe refer to the previous ages and not applicable now.
Smṛti-candrikā[6] adds:
ādi-purāṇe 'pi -
yas tu kārta-yugo dharmo na kartavyaḥ kalau yuge |
pāpa-prasaktās tu yataḥ kalau nāryo-narās tathā ||
"In the Ādi-purāṇa it is said: "The dharma for Satya-yuga is not to be performed in Kali-yuga. Otherwise men and women in Kali-yuga will become strongly attached to sin.""
These two quotes from the Yama and Hārīta smṛtis have been of the favorite quotes of those who wish propagate a Hindu version of equal rights movement. Some of them go so far as to say that there were equal rights for women and men in everything and then greedy and proud priests edited the old scriptures and wrote their own to denigrate women. No need to mention, but we as Śrīla Prabhupāda's followers cannot subscribe to such views.
And finally, this verse speaks about "purā-kalpa" – the bygone age, not the present age. It implies that such rules for "equal rights" although might have been in practice in the previous ages, may not be applicable in the present age.
anye kṛta-yuge dharmās tretāyāṁ dvāpare
'pare anye kali-yuge nṝṇāṁ yuga-rāsānurūpataḥ
One set of duties (is prescribed) for men in the Krita age, different ones in the Treta and in the Dvapara, and (again) another (set) in the Kali, in a proportion as (those) ages decrease in length. (Manu-smṛti, 1.85, the same verse also appears in the Parāśara-smṛti, 1.22).
Here are some examples of things that were prevalent in the human society in the previous ages but now are absent or even sinful:
The famous ancient Vedic authority Āpastamba, who is also mentioned in the paper we are discussing, says that in the previous ages demigods lived together with humans on this planet: saha deva manuṣyā asmil loke purā babhūvuḥ (Āpastamba-dharma-sūtra, 2.7.16.1)[7]
Mahābhārata says that in the previous ages women were not restricted and there was no marriage as we know it now:
anāvṛtāḥ kila purā striya āsan varānane
kāma-cāra-vihāriṇyaḥ svatantrāś cārulocane
tāsāṁ vyuccaramāṇānāṁ kaumārāt subhage patīn
nādharmo 'bhūd varārohe sa hi dharmaḥ purābhavat (Ādi-parva, 113.4-5)[8]
"Long ago women were not at all restricted, O lovely one. Women were self-reliant in those remote times and could go where they liked and enjoy in their own way. From childhood, fine lady, they were not faithful to their husbands, and yet their behavior was not irreligious, for that was the religious principle of those former days."
No need to cite many other examples, but if we are not satisfied with whatever direction Śrīla Prabhupāda and previous ācāryas have given us, here is what the traditional ancient Vedic scholar Āpastamba has to say in this regard in his Dharma-sūtra (he explains that the rules that contradict dharma that were once in vogue, are not applicable in the Kali-yuga):
dṛṣṭo dharma-vyatikramaḥ sāhasaṃ ca
pūrveṣām teṣāṃ tejo-viśeṣeṇa pratyavāyo na vidyate
tad anvīkṣya prayuñjānaḥ sīdaty avaraḥ[9]
"Transgression of the law and violence are found amongst the ancient (sages). They committed no sin on account of the greatness of their lustre. A man of later times who seeing their (deeds) follows them, falls." (Āpastamba-dharma-sūtra, 2.6.13.7)[10].
And lastly, although the Hārīta-smṛti speaks about performing upanayana for women, interestingly we can hardly think of any example of this from the śāstra.
(To be continued…)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Patrick Olivelle (ed.), The Early Upanisads, Annotated Text and Translation, Oxford University Press,
1998, p.157.
[2] Atharva-veda-saṁhitā with the commentary of Sāyaṇācārya, Jawaji Dadaji, Mumbai, 1897, pp.113-114.
[3] Ṛgveda-saṁhitā with the commentary of Sāyaṇācārya, Vaidika Samsodhana Mandala, Poona, 1946,
Vol.4, p.846.
[4] The Hymns of the Rigveda, translated with the popular commentary by R.T.H. Griffith, Second Edition, Vol.2, Benares, 1897, p.596.
[5] We used the same edition as the authors of the paper - Vīramitrodaya, Samskāra Prakāśa, of Mahāmahopādhyāya Paṇḍita Mitra Miśra, Edited by P.N. Sharma, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, Printed by Jai Krishna Das Gupta, Vidya Vilas Press, Benares. 1919.
[6] Smṛti-candrikā by Devaṇa Bhaṭṭa, Saṁskāra-kāṇḍa and Āhnika-kaṇḍa, edited by L.Shrinivasacharya, Mysore, 1914., vol.1, p.29.
[7] Buhler, George. The sacred laws of the Aryas as taught in the schools of Apastamba and Gautama, Oxford, 1879, Sacred Books of the East, Vol.2, p.138.
[8] The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata, Vol.1, The Adiparvan, Poona, 1933, p.500.
[9] Buhler, George. Apastamba's aphorisms on the Sacred Law of the Hindus, 1932, p.72.
[10] Buhler, George. The sacred laws of the Aryas as taught in the schools of Apastamba and Gautama, Oxford, 1879, Sacred Books of the East, Vol.2, p.131.
